Seasonality The Archaeology of Changing Seasons

Seasonality refers to the changes that occur in the local, regional, and planet-wide environment as our planet lurches through its solar year. In temperate regions, spring turns to summer, summer to fall, fall to winter to spring again. But environmental changes occur seasonally everywhere on the planet to some degree, even at the poles, even at the equator. Archaeologists are interested in seasonality with respect to the adaptations that humans have created over the past 12,000 years to cope with and survive those changes. Seasonality is thus a core concept in for studying and understanding ancient farming technologies. Modern Technology and Adaptations Modern people notice when the weather changes throughout the year: We might have to shovel the snow off the driveway or pull out our summer clothing. But we—at least those of us in the so-called first world—arent as a rule intimately involved in tracking changes in animal and plant behavior, building insulated housing, and making or repairing warm clothing. We have a calendar for tracking that. We might see a specific type of food disappear from our store shelves, or, more likely, a steeper price for the same food depending on the time of year, but if we notice its not a serious loss. Undeniably, modern technology and global trade networks have softened the impact of the changing seasons. But that was not the case up until relatively recently. For pre-modern people, temperate climate seasonal changes sharply affected availability to crucial resources, and if you didnt pay attention, you didnt survive long. Coping with Seasonality In temperate or colder climates, some—maybe most—natural and cultural events are tied to the natural changes that occur from season to season. Animals migrate or hibernate, plants go dormant, being outside of shelter is problematic. Some cultural groups in the past responded to the oncoming winter seasons by constructing storage facilities for safely storing summer crops, by building and moving into different types of houses, still others by temporarily relocating to warmer or cooler climates. In a fairly broad but nonetheless meaningful way, calendar systems and astronomical observatories were created to respond to the demands of seasonality. The more closely you could predict when the seasons arrived, the better you could plan for your survival. One result is that religious ceremonies associated with the movements of the sun, moon, and stars were scheduled for different seasons. Solstices and equinoxes were celebrated with specific rites at specific seasons of the year: indeed they still are. Most religions celebrate their highest holy days at the winter and summer solstice. Dietary Changes Much more than today, diets changed throughout the year. Seasons determined what kinds of foods were available. If you were a hunter-gatherer, you needed to know when a particular fruit was available, when the deer were likely to migrate through your area and how far they were likely to go. Farmers knew that different agricultural crops required planting and would ripen at different times of the year. Planting a variety of crops, some of which ripened in spring, some in summer, and some in fall, resulted in a more reliable system of resources to get the groups through the year. Pastoralists needed to recognize when different animals gestated at different times of the year, or when they produced their woolliest coats, or when the herd needed to be thinned. Tracking Seasonality in Archaeology Archaeologists use the clues left in artifacts, animal bones, and human remains to identify the effects of seasonality on human cultures and the adaptations those cultures wielded. For example, an archaeological midden (trash heap) might contain animal bones and plant seeds. Determining in what season those animals were killed or those plants harvested allows us to get closer to understanding human behaviors. To identify the season of death for a plant or a human, archaeologists can track seasonal changes recorded as growth rings. Many if not most living things record seasonal changes the way tree rings do. Animal teeth—human teeth too—record recognizable seasonal sequences; individual animals born in the same period of the year have the same pattern of growth rings. Many other organisms such as fish and shellfish also record annual or seasonal growth rings in their bones and shells. Technological advances in identifying seasonality have included stable isotope analysis and ancient DNA changes in animals and plants. Stable isotope chemical balances in teeth and bones change with dietary input. Ancient DNA allows a researcher to identify specific species of animals and then compare those seasonality patterns with known modern patterns. Seasonality and Climate Change Over the past 12,000 years or so, humans have constructed controls to plan for and adapt to the changing seasons. But we are all still at the mercy of climate changes that result both from natural fluctuations and cultural choices made by people. Droughts and flooding, storms and wildfires, diseases which evolve from humans living in close proximity to one another and animals: All of these are in part climate-driven woes that had to be accounted for in the past, and need to be accounted for in the present and future as adaptations for survival. Understanding how our ancestors adapted may well provide guidance to our ability to adapt in the future. Sources Balasse, Marie, et al. Stable Isotope Insights (delta 18O, delta 13C) into Cattle and Sheep Husbandry at Bercy (Paris, France, 4th Millennium BC): Birth Seasonality and Winter Leaf Foddering. Environmental Archaeology 17.1 (2012): 29–44. Print.Blaise, Emilie, and Marie Balasse. Seasonality and Season of Birth of Modern and Late Neolithic Sheep from South-Eastern France Using Tooth Enamel delta18O Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 38.11 (2011): 3085–93. Print.Boyd, Brian. Archaeology and Human-Animal Relations: Thinking through Anthropocentrism. Annual Review of Anthropology 46.1 (2017): 299–316. Print.Burchell, Meghan, et al. Determining Seasonality of Mussel Collection from an Early Historic Inuit Site, Labrador, Canada: Comparing Thin-Sections with High-Resolution Stable Oxygen Isotope Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2018). Print.David, Wengrow, and Graeber David. Farewell to the ‘Childhood of Man’: Ritual, Seasonali ty, and the Origins of Inequality. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 21.3 (2015): 597–619. Print.Ewonus, Paul A., Aubrey Cannon, and Dongya Y. Yang. Addressing Seasonal Site Use through Ancient DNA Species Identification of Pacific Salmon at Dionisio Point, Galiano Island, British Columbia. Journal of Archaeological Science 38.10 (2011): 2536–46. Print.Hufthammer, Anne Karin, et al. Seasonality of Human Site Occupation Based on Stable Oxygen Isotope Ratios of Cod Otoliths. Journal of Archaeological Science 37.1 (2010): 78–83. Print.Rendu, William. Hunting Behavior and Neanderthal Adaptability in the Late Pleistocene Site of Pech-de-lAzà © I. Journal of Archaeological Science 37.8 (2010): 1798–810. Print.Roberts, Patrick, et al. Climate, Environment and Early Human Innovation: Stable Isotope and Faunal Proxy Evidence from Archaeological Sites (98–59ka) in the Southern Cape, South Africa. PLoS ONE 11.7 (2016): e0157408. Print.Vickers, K im, and Guà °rà ºn Sveinbjarnardà ³ttir. Insect Invaders, Seasonality and Transhumant Pastoralism in the Icelandic Shieling Economy. Environmental Archaeology 18.2 (2013): 165–77. Print.Wright, Elizabeth, et al. Age and Season of Pig Slaughter at Late Neolithic Durrington Walls (Wiltshire, Uk) as Detected through a New System for Recording Tooth Wear. Journal of Archaeological Science 52.0 (2014): 497–514. Print.

Achievements During the Progressive Era - 844 Words

During the historical period commonly regarded as the Progressive Era in the 1900s, began with the First World War in which women joined the political field in extraordinary amounts. Women were incorporated in leading positions in an array of social reform endeavors, comprising of suffrage, equality, child welfare, and nonviolence (Haman, 2009). Women in the ear started to establish conferences; spoke at gatherings, petitioned government representatives, led marches and protests. Women were also involved in a multiple policies that, for the first time in U.S. history, provided them with a visible presence on the political arena (Haman, 2009). The lines that divided women’s household and public existence became distorted as women joined the†¦show more content†¦Womens actual presence in city streets definitively questioned outdated ideas of femininity and consequent limitations on womens behavior. The significant parades, organized between 1910 and 1913, revealed women s shared deployment while visually representing woman suffragists’, which challenged their suggested social roles (Borada, 2002). The performance of suffrage parades became an act of public celebration, an illustration of social protest, and an exhibition of womens ability to partake in political societies. Subsequently, in womens lengthy battle for the right to vote, new political strategies and, more accurately, an approach of strategic opposition were created within the movements (Borada, 2002). On March 3, 1913, dressed in a white cloak riding a white horse, lawyer Inez Milholland guided the great woman suffrage parade along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington D.C. (Harvey, n.d.). Following Inez Milholland stretched out a lengthy line with nine bands, four mounted brigades, three announcers, about twenty-four floats, and more than 5,000 marchers including, women and some men (Harvey, n.d.). In an article by the New York Times from 1913 described that while it was possible to keep free just a tighten walkway in which the â€Å"suffragists† passed through; there were still other delays along the way (5,000 Women March, Beset by Crowds, 1913). It was almost sundown when the final marchers made their way to the WhiteShow MoreRelatedProgressivism Between The Ideals Of Social Justice And The Urge For Social Control1130 Words   |  5 Pagesbetween the ideals of social justice and the urge for social control. What concrete achievements are associated with each wing of the movement? What were the driving forces behind them? Progressives not only focused on improving quality of life for its citizens, but also on controlling certain aspects of the legal system. For instance, educated middle class women fought for better recognitions of women’s achievement, and they focused on improving health, education, ending child labor, and fixing workingRead MoreProgressive Era and the New Deal857 Words   |  4 PagesProgressive Era and the New Deal (Question 5) During the Progressive Era, the reformers were stricter and did not provide direct help, while the reformers in the New Deal were a little more direct in helping Americans. The progressive era policies were more concerned with correcting the society. All three presidents during this time period, including Theodore Roosevelt, Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson, implemented some progressive reforms. It was the government’s policy to correct social and economicRead MoreThe Progressive Era1003 Words   |  5 PagesThe Progressive Era Progressivism in the United States took place in the period between the Spanish-American War and the entry of the United States into the great World War. It was a time for change in America in all walks of life, as well as a time for reform. It was marked by Theodore Roosevelts 7 and a half years in office, the Rough Rider put it upon himself to make the first strides towards reform. These reforms included the cracking down on illegal monopolies and so forth. During thisRead More The Progressive Era Essay984 Words   |  4 Pages The Progressive Era nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Progressivism in the United States took place in the period between the Spanish-American War and the entry of the United States into the great World War. It was a time for change in America in all walks of life, as well as a time for reform. It was marked by Theodore Roosevelts 7 and a half years in office, the Rough Rider put it upon himself to make the first strides towards reform. These reforms included the cracking down on illegal monopoliesRead MoreThe Progressive Movement in the US Essay648 Words   |  3 PagesAbrams, he says the progressives mostly sought to introduce old moral beliefs on Americans by trying to integrate Immigrants by making them accept the ways of American life. But Abrams states those goals were ruined for important motives. One being the movement failed because of racism, which was widespread, throughout this time era. Abrams also considers the new scientific developments concerning culture and race affected the movement in a relevant manner. Conversely, progressives thought differentlyRead MoreCompare And Contrast Theodore Roosevelt And The Progressive Era755 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the Progressive Era, two presidents, Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, were very essential and celebrated during their time. Roosevelt became president in 1901 and was probably one of the most influential Republicans ever to have power over the Ameri can people (â€Å"Theodore Roosevelt.†). Being a democrat, Woodrow Wilson ran his campaign in a very different way than President Roosevelt. He became president in 1913 and was easily one of the best presidents the United States ever had, leadingRead MoreThe Progressive Era Of The 19th Century1463 Words   |  6 PagesMaya Stepansky Mr. Meyer Progressive Era DBQ Toward the latter part of the 19th century, bustling America, in response to the trends of industrialization and urbanization that characterized its Gilded Age, began its new century by entering into a new historical/political epoch that came to be known as the Progressive Era. This distinctive period in history (spanning from the 1890s through 1920) found progressives seeking to use the American federal government as a means of change through socialRead MorePortrayal Of The American Girls Professional Baseball League1638 Words   |  7 Pagesfilm providing a different perspective and more depth to different values. With the frequent ties of historical context, movies draw upon real athletes, situations, and struggles. The historical context further represents social and cultural beliefs during the time of the movie’s setting, helping to portray the past. This paper will discuss several American values identified throughout the movies viewed, whether its progress, freedom, o r equality. Through a fictional portrayal of the All American GirlsRead MoreEssay on Boss713 Words   |  3 PagesHow did the British victory in the Seven Years War ironically become one of the precipitating causes of the American Revolution? What deeply rooted historical factors moved America towards independence from Britain? 6. What were the primary achievements and failures of the US under the Articles of Confederation? What essentially motivated the drive to create a new foundation for government, and how did the constitution reflect the Founder’s central intensions? 7. What were the underlying philosophicalRead MoreProgressive Era Dbq1060 Words   |  5 Pages DBQ During the Progressive Era the American society was evolving; technology, businesses and industry were advancing. However many problems rose in America. Many people faced poor working conditions including low pay and dangerous environments. Consumers were becoming aware of the horrors of the food industry. Women were seeking their right to vote, and the government was infested with the social elites who controlled industry, trusts and monopolies. Progressive reformers worked to

Change Management Tools Of TQM And Lean Production - Samples

Question: Discuss about the Change Management Tools Of TQM And Lean Production. Answer: A significant part of the things that make first-rate companies supple is the capability in balancing action of fast nature and change with the clarity of the organization along with its formation and immovability. In effectively utilizing the tools of change management, it is significant in defining change and ensuring that everyone working inside the organization comprehend and supports the endeavour. This paper would look into thechange management tools of TQM and lean production within the manufacturing and service sectors. Each of the manufacturing companies is worried about their quality, irrespective of the department it generally is. The reason for the same being the overall quality can have an effect on the relationship a manufacturing company haws with its customers, and as they say for the manufacturing sector, customer is everything. In the manufacturing sector, if the customers are not happy with the quality they are not going to exploit the company which would result in decline of the sales along with the general profits. In the manufacturing sector, employee turnover is stated to be high, so one of the key goals of total qualitymanagement is in improving the environment of work where employees will show interest to stay instead of leaving and going for other better opportunities[1]. It has often been found that most of the entry level workers in the manufacturing companies do not receive the formal training or the required feedback that they want so much, especially when they are trying hard in working their way up in the organization. The thing that mostly happens with the manufacturing workers is that they find themselves having knowledge of everything that is there to be learnt and would not be climbing the ladder within that company, so they end up shifting to another organization[2]. This is not what any company wants as turnover generally has huge impact on the quality of the manufacturing method for many reasons. One of the most significant reasons is the cost that is associated with the process of hiring of individuals and training of the same. Another reason can be that the workers who are inexperienced tend to make more mistakes that would slow down the process of the overall operation. The company management then needs to come up with something in keeping the employees around through augmenting the morale of employees through the factor of total quality management. TQM helps in involvement of employees at every stage, working in quality teams making use of defined process in solving issues. Employees are motivated in taking active part in the process of planning, implementing and reviewing the process of quality[3]. Xerox is one manufacturing company that was badly in need of TQM after it started losing out on market share to Japanese competitors and was in danger of closing down. Xerox is one such company that has been helped immensely through implementation of TQM in its leadership teams and it did regain its market share from its Japanese competitors through TQM. Their job has been in helping the management to tackle difficult employees and finding ways of reducing costs. Their implementation of TQM has led to workers taking active part in activities because a sense of competitiveness has creep in among them to come up with best possible ideas along with pride in the work the team does. These are the sort of employees that have been helping organizations like Xerox in becoming a success. They have helped Xerox in manufacturing best quality products having the ability to compete in global market[4]. It signifies the fact that TQM has played its part in being the appropriate tool that led to th e successful change in the fortune of Xerox. Maintaining of high eminence is a significant factor within the healthcare industry. An office should be appointed by the healthcare facilities in order to make certain the quality of the care in nursing homes, hospitals and other health care providers in the industry. It is important in maintaining the quality factor because if quality is not maintained by a particular health service provider, the customer might opt for a different provider and share their criticism and opinion about the former in social websites. This would tarnish the reputation of the organization. Accreditation facilitates the health care in gaining new set of customers through providing of confirmation to their probable customers of the health providers ability in offering quality services[5]. AtlantiCare is a New Jersey based provider of healthcare that has benefited immensely from TQM. It has nearly 5000 employees though the level of profit became a concern for the AtlantiCare management as it was not up to the level the management wished for or desired on the basis of the services provided by them. They wanted to increase their profit margin and the managers wanted to implement developments and change across the board. For healthcare industry, satisfaction of patients is the most important factor and for AtlantiCare, engaging in a campaign of TQM proved to be a normal fit[6]. The firm selected a plan-do-check-act cycle, edifying gaps in the process of communication between the staffs. This generally led to longer waiting times accompanied by more complaints. To deal with this the managers came up with sideways method for smoothing the internal communication. Rather than the information trickling down from the top-to-bottom level, the employees were given abundant freedo m in providing key feedback at every level[7]. AtlantiCare decided on ensuring that all the new staff properly understood this cultural value from the very beginning. The new staffs were given a crash course in the organizations performance excellence structure, where the main focus was on five significant areas- people, growth, quality, customer service and financial routine. After generating the benchmark goals for the employees in achieving at all the levels, inclusive of better commitment at the point of delivery time, developing clinical communication and recognizing opportunities of service-AtlantiCare did thrive[8]. AtlantiCare started experiencing repeat customers that triple in number and its market share hit a high not seen in six years. This all led to the rise in the profits that was not unsurprising though as the management worked hard in achieving the same. The revenue of the firm shot up to $650 million from $280 after successful implementation of total quality development strategies, bringing in the required chang es that led to the rise in the profits. AtlantiCare was serving more patients than the other state health care providers after TQM was brought into the system. Nike adopted a lean advancement or better manufacturing as an element of the initiative of sustainability, Nike has been able to reduce the material waste and time of production, facilitating the supply chain of the company in operating in more efficient manner. The report suggested that the constricted factories that have approved lean approach of Nike experienced rates of defect 50 per cent lesser than the facilities that did not. Lead times related to delivery from the lean factories were generally about 40 per cent shorter. The productivity of lean factory augmented to 20 per cent from 10 per cent along with the time of introducing a new product to a factory was trimmed down by 30 per cent[9]. Nikes sustainability signifies being leaser-focused on developing the model of business of the company in delivering lucrative growth while influencing the effectiveness of lean production or manufacturing, limiting the effect that it has on the environment and making use of the available tools in bringing about positive outcome into the supply chain. In certain areas, including the minimization of undue overtime at the contracted factories, progress was made in slow fashion than it was generally expected. Nike also managed to alter its drawing near of some of the targets, inclusive of production of carbon, based on deeper knowledge of the confrontation and in improving configuration with the strategy of business[10]. The reputation of Nike in manufacturing of cutting-edge footwear across the globe is second to none. However, not many understand the methodical and disciplined endurance of Nike for being at the top. The commitment that is being portrayed by Nike in driving flawless and execution of innovative product is imposing. For designing and manufacturing at a constantly higher-level, Nike has been able to incorporate intensely principles of lean workplace along with innovation that is stated to be the cultural standard within the company[11]. Nikes lean philosophy has been Make Today Better that is obvious within every facility where they exist. The market is highly competitive and for the same Nike needs to constantly indulge itself in manufacturing highest quality products through its lean production. They have improved their training facilities for their employees and have tried to make them knowledgeable about importance of team work, a key concept for developing operations. Employees who are closest to the issues are being suggested for solving of the same. The most striking factor about Nike is that the organization has strived hard and found a way of incorporating both methodologies related to innovation and lean. It is generally built on a workforce and culture that has the ability in encompassing the things a lean manufacturing system grips and it drives in innovation of the products[12]. The approach of Nike drives both built-in qualities along with unsettling innovation. A company is in the habit of serving its customers for a certain purpose along with fulfilling the needs of the customer. This is generally being attained by single processes that are generally being executed by the people: the employees of the company. The actual idea of lean operations develops from the notion that all these individual procedures cannot be recognized in adding extra value, and then under the principle of lean operations, this method can be measured as being wasteful and that it should be removed from the operations. This process aims towards removing needless and no value services, it has been argued that lean production might be more appropriate for services and products with relatively steady demand and low scale on disparity[13]. Ryanair has been instrumental in shaping the market of European air-travel and has contributed largely to the fact that travel by air has been viewed as more of a commodity service. Ryanair implemented a low cost model and defining air travel as commodity service, it deliberately wanted to eliminate all the activities from their processes that do not add any value to their customer service. In case of the business model adopted by Ryanair, overproduction can be witnessed as an extra service other than the transportation factor[14]. Ryanair thrived in making customers demand for wholesome service of transportation from the organization. It severely cuts out the service of the passengers; drinks, food along with service-care related to baggage that is only available with supplementary costs. In-flight entertainment was also removed from the service. Delay time or waiting time that is being lost between two actions do append value. For removing waste related to waiting that was bothering Ryanair, it implemented in keeping the time of the airplane on ground, which is the turnaround time to minimum. This has been made possible by entirely serving the secondary and smaller airports having lower amount of traffic. Ryanair witnessed motion as an unnecessary step in their system existing in the middle of the process of their operations; the organization isolated such a step through means of disintermediation in its process of ticket selling. In the initial stages of its operations flights were being sold over the telephone, however under present circumstances the company has adopted the policy of selling the tickets through homepage, therefore avoiding involvement of travelling agencies entirely[15]. Ryanair minimizes the wasted space by making use of their capacity on every flight in more efficient of manners. The company opted something different to minimize its situation of empty seats like selling seats for various pries, varying as per season, time of booking and day. Ryanair is a company that put lean production strategy in the heart if its process in increasing the satisfaction level of customers travelling with them and reducing the wastage to a minimal level, ensuing in doing more with less. It can be concluded that change management is a multi-disciplinary business. It relies on the approaches of psychology, systems thinking and much more than that. With all the conceptual talk around, it is often easy in forgetting the regular things the management used to get things prepared: tools of change management and methods. References: Colledani, Marcello, Tullio Tolio, Anath Fischer, Benoit Iung, Gisela Lanza, Robert Schmitt, and Jzsef Vncza. "Design and management of manufacturing systems for production quality."CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology63, no. 2 (2014): 773-796. Jimnez-Jimnez, Daniel, Micaela Martinez-Costa, Angel R. Martnez-Lorente, and Hammady Ahmed Dine Rabeh. "Total quality management performance in multinational companies: A learning perspective."The TQM Journal27, no. 3 (2015): 328-340. Zeng, Jing, Chi Anh Phan, and Yoshiki Matsui. "The impact of hard and soft quality management on quality and innovation performance: An empirical study."International journal of production economics162 (2015): 216-226. Aquilani, Barbara, Cecilia Silvestri, Alessandro Ruggieri, and Corrado Gatti. "A systematic literature review on total quality management critical success factors and the identification of new avenues of research."The TQM Journal29, no. 1 (2017): 184-213. Chiarini, Andrea, and Emidia Vagnoni. "TQM implementation for the healthcare sector: The relevance of leadership and possible causes of lack of leadership."Leadership in Health Services30, no. 3 (2017): 210-216. Ahmad, Md Fauzi, Phoi Soo Nee, Nik Hisyamudin Muhd Nor, Chan Shiaw Wei, Mohd Fahrul Hassan, and Nor Aziati Abdul Hamid. "Total Quality Management Practices in Malaysia Healthcare Industry: A Survey Result."International Journal of Supply Chain Management6, no. 3 (2017): 332-336. Mosadeghrad, Ali Mohammad. "Developing and validating a total quality management model for healthcare organisations."The TQM Journal27, no. 5 (2015): 544-564. Rao, Ujjwal. "Total quality management in healthcare: A historical perspective for a modern definition."International Journal of Health Sciences and Research5, no. 3 (2015): 353-364. Jasti, Naga Vamsi Krishna, and Rambabu Kodali. "Lean production: literature review and trends."International Journal of Production Research53, no. 3 (2015): 867-885. Arfmann, David, and G. Topolansky Barbe. "The value of lean in the service sector: a critique of theory practice."International Journal of Business and Social Science5, no. 2 (2014). de Jong, Stephan J., and Wouter WA Beelaerts van Blokland. "Measuring lean implementation for maintenance service companies."International Journal of Lean Six Sigma7, no. 1 (2016): 35-61. Hirsh, Max. "Emerging infrastructures of low-cost aviation in Southeast Asia."Mobilities12, no. 2 (2017): 259-276. Distelhorst, Greg, Jens Hainmueller, and Richard M. Locke. "Does lean improve labor standards? Management and social performance in the Nike supply chain."Management Science63, no. 3 (2016): 707-728. Joelle, Natalie. "Gleaning Lean Culture."ISLE: Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment(2018). Sim, Khim L., and John W. Rogers. "Implementing lean production systems: barriers to change."Management research news32, no. 1 (2008): 37-49.

Museum as framing device free essay sample

Museum as Framing Devices A museum is an institution devoted to the procurement, care, study and display of objects of lasting interest or valuel . Museums are not used for making profit or for economic purpose. They are intended to attract visitors, to admire and to educate people with important pieces of humanitys history. They contain permanent or temporary exhibitions of art all of around the world. However, museums frame or shapes our understanding of the works of art they exhibit. A long period is used to esign and organize the way that the collection is going to be exhibit. The curatorial staff is in charge of how objects are displayed, how objects are labeled and described, how they are illuminated and in what parts of the museum are located. All these factors help contextualized the objects in different ways. In this essay I compare the way two different collections from two different museums are displayed and framed. We will write a custom essay sample on Museum as framing device or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There is no correct way when visiting a museum, whether you enter from the last room, your instincts are your basic guide when you tour a museum. However, museums can alter your instincts and draw their attention to specific and important works of arts. Your attention is drawn to that particular object with certain characteristics, in a room with unique design and illumination of a specific theme or topic. It is of extreme importance that a museum exhibition is well displayed in order to maintain the visitor attracted at all times to the objects viewed. The Denver Art Museum contains a number of collections from art all around the world. One that caught most my attention was the Modern and Contemporary Art collection. It includes a large number of pieces of 20th century works from a variety of different artist. As soon you enter this collection, you can see at the far back of the room an incredible sculpture called Quantum Cloud made by Antony Gormley. This amazing sculpture is made of stainless steel and has the fgure of a human being. However, what caught my eyes attention besides the splendor of the piece was how the museum displayed the work. They exhibited it in the far back corner of the collection in a place were it was visible to the visitor from almost any point of the room. It was exhibit alone by itself with an illumination that created a shinning and attractive effect. The same effect was used in works of arts such as West Side Jovenes made by Tony Ortega. It is located in a wall that can also be seen from many places of the room, it contains an illumination that helps bring the brightness of the painting to life. Both works of arts are very extensive; however, it is not because of the extension that they are located in alone in a wall but because of the importance that the museum gives to them. On the other hand, there are other less important works that can only be seen from one point of the room for example the Kim Dingles Priss. All the works on the collection are labeled with the name, artist and material used for the elaboration of it, but only important pieces have a broad description of it. Some of this description include the artists quotes of what the he meant or intended on the building of the artwork, for example, in Quantum Cloud, Antony Gormley says the whole project is to make the work from the inside rather than manipulate it from the outside2. This is intended so that the viewer gets a deeper connection with the artist a piece that required admiration and analysis, so that the viewer could take his time. The collection filtered the content so that the visitors were not inundated with tons of information and images. The Modern and Contemporary collection presented all of his pieces as works of arts rather than artifacts. The CU Art Museum is very small compared to the Denver Art Museum, however it contains a large amount of collection of all around the world. One that particularly caught my attention was the Wilton Jaffee Roman Coin collection. It is displayed on a glass chamber all organized chronologically by Empire. Each coin was labeled with the year of its use, the name of the Emperor imprinted on the coin, the material it was made with, and a very small description of the coin itself. It had a very good illumination, so that the coin could be appreciated perfectly. The location of the collection was really particular. It was located on the last room near the exit door of the museum, so that before leaving the place you take a deep look of it. The display can be seen from every point of the oom. The collection had a large poster on the back that contained an introduction of the Roman Empire and the use of the coins by that time. Also, the poster contained a large map of the Roman Empire and a coin with the face of Empress Julia Domma that could be the most important of the collection. This poster had several functions. First, it attracted your eyes toward the collection due to the colored map and the large coin image. Also, the poster captures the curiosity of the viewer with the storytelling technique and makes you have deeper connection with the display. The information provided in the description is very skimmed, so that it is easy to people of different levels of education to understand it. The Roman Coin collection presented his exhibit as an artifact rather than art because it emphasize on the use of the coin rather than the art included on it. In conclusion, each museum uses a different method on framing or shaping our understanding of an object they display. Factors such as the setting in which they are exhibit, the labels and the information provided by the museum, the way museums filter the content, and the ay they are displayed can change our notion of how we look at an artwork. It is very important that the curator staff dedicate a lot of time in the exhibit design so that the display attracts and delights all visitors. Both museums were able to display effectively the collection, although they were presented differently, one as an artifact and the other one as art. They motivated the visitors, focused the content, and captured the curiosity of the visitor. The Denver Art Museum and CU Art were able to mixed the best elements to create an amazing museum exhibit design.

Find Out Where Killer Whales Live

Find Out Where Killer Whales Live Despite their prevalence in marine parks such as SeaWorld, killer whales (otherwise known as orcas) are a wide-ranging cetacean species in the wild. Learn more about where killer whales live and how they survive. Killer whales are found in all of the worlds oceans. In fact, the Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals states that they are second only to humans as the most widely distributed mammal in the world. You can see a killer whale range map on the IUCN site. These animals seem to prefer cooler waters, but may be found from warm waters around the Equator to polar waters. Orcas may enter semi-enclosed seas, river mouths, and ice-riddled areas, in addition to inhabiting waters far out in the open ocean.You may think they only live in deep oceans, but populations have been recorded living for longer periods of time in only a few meters of water.   The question of where killer whales live is complicated by the fact that there is disagreement over how many species of killer whales there are. Studies on killer whale genetics, physical appearance, diet, and vocalizations have led scientists to believe that there are more than one species (or at least subspecies) of killer whales (you can see a great illustration of the different types of killer whales). Once this question is answered, the habitat for various species may become more defined. SeaWorld notes that there are a few different types of Antarctic killer whales in different regions:  Type A killer whales live offshore in water that does not include ice.Type B orcas live in inshore waters of Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula; large type B near the pack ice; and small type B venture out to more open waters.Type C killer whales inhabit inshore waters and pack ice. They are most commonly found in the eastern Antarctic.Type D orcas reside in deep, subantarctic waters. The whales move around and can migrate based on where their prey goes. Where Orcas Live Areas where killer whales have been well-studied include: The Southern Ocean around AntarcticaThe Pacific Northwest  (where salmon-eating resident orcas, mammal-eating transient orcas, and shark-eating offshore orcas have been identified)AlaskaNorth Atlantic Ocean (Norway, Iceland, Scotland and the Strait of Gibraltar)On more rare occasions they have been seen in waters off of the Bahamas, Florida, Hawaii, Australia, the Galapagos Islands, the Gulf of Mexico, New Zealand, and South Africa.Rarely, they have been seen in freshwater locations.   Killer Whale Living Relationships Within the populations of killer whales in various areas, there may be pods and clans. Pods are long-term units made up of males, females, and calves. Within the pods, there are smaller units called maternal groups, consisting of mothers and their offspring. Above the pods in the social structure are clans. These are groups of pods that associate over time and may be related to each other. Want to see killer whales in the wild? You can get a list of whale watching sites around the world, many of which offer the opportunity to see killer whales.

Crenation Definition and Example

Crenation Definition and Example Crenation is the term used to describe an object having a scalloped or round-toothed edge. The term comes from the Latin word  crenatus  which means scalloped or notched. In biology and zoology, the term refers to an organism displaying the shape (such as a leaf or shell), while in chemistry, crenation is used to describe what happens to a cell or other object when it is exposed to a hypertonic solution. Crenation and Red Blood Cells Red blood cells are the particular type of cell most discussed with reference to crenation. A normal human red blood cell (RBC) is round, with an indented center (because human RBCs lack a nucleus). When a red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, such as a highly saline environment, there is a lower concentration of solute particles inside the cell than outside in the extracellular space. This causes water to flow from inside the cell into the extracellular space via osmosis. As water leaves the cell, it shrinks and develops the notched appearance characteristic of crenation. In addition to hypertonicity, red blood cells may have a crenated appearance as the result of certain diseases. Acanthocytes are spiked red blood cells that may form from liver disease, neurological disease, and other illnesses. Echinocytes or burr cells are RBCs that have evenly-spaced thorny projections. Echinocytes form after exposure to anticoagulants and as artifacts from some staining techniques. They are also associated with hemolytic anemia, uremia, and other disorders. Crenation Versus Plasmolysis While crenation occurs in animals cells, cells that have a cell wall cannot shrink and change shape when placed in a hypertonic solution. Plant and bacterial cells instead undergo plasmolysis. In plasmolysis, water leaves the cytoplasm, but the cell wall does not collapse. Instead, the protoplasm shrinks, leaving gaps between the cell wall and cell membrane. The cell loses turgor pressure and becomes flaccid. Continued loss of pressure can cause the collapse of the cell wall or  cytorrhysis. Cells undergoing plasmolysis do not develop a spiky or scalloped shape. Practical Applications of Crenation Crenation is a useful technique for preserving food. Salt curing of meat causes crenation. Pickling of cucumbers is another practical use of crenation.

Market entry plan for Walmart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Market entry plan for Walmart - Essay Example The firm that is analyzed in the paper is Walmart that was founded in 1962 by Sam Walton. Over the years, it has expanded to become one the US’ largest chain of retail stores, growing into almost 300 stores by the end of the 1970s, and now with over 10,000 stores globally. Its first foray into the international market was in the early 90s, when it entered into a joint venture with Mexico’s largest retailer Cifra to operate Sam’s Club. This move was to be considered its most successful entry into foreign trade, having conquered the Mexican market and contributing approximately 30% of all food sales in the local market. To date, it has not really matched its tremendous success in Mexico. Walmart now has global presence in Mexico, Germany, China and the United Kingdom, among others. It has 5,651 stores and approximately 780,000 associates in 26 countries outside the continental US. It has acquired stores, co-branded or actually brought the Walmart brands into these new locations. However, its market entry strategy has always been perceived as weak, primarily because the company has applied the same market entry strategies in majority of the locations it ventured into. Management failed to take into consider the idiosyncrasies of each country that the company has tried to penetrate, and understand the unique market needs within each culture and social setup per location. (This is not America. Why Walmart left Germany 2012). In fact, Walmart was even described as among the several retailers that have â€Å"underestimated the role of conducting cultural due diligence prior to foreign market entry†, resulting to massive pullouts in strategic locations such as Germany and South Korea, and losing of billions of dollars in the process (Retail Internationalization 2012). Taking into consideration historical hits and misses in global market penetration, this paper aims to discuss and recommend appropriate market entry strategies to ensure that t he company’s next international venture will promise more success than failure. II. MARKET ENTRY STRATEGY Australia is considered to be one of the strongest economies in the world. The country has been highly praised by various international organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for its ‘brilliant macroeconomic management and consistent economic reform’. The Australian government has created a stable and strong base for economic growth. Its current GDP growth rate is 3.8% with an inflation rate of 2.5%. It is considered to be the second easiest economy for new businessmen and the third easiest place to get credit for a business, and has few restrictions in the field of Trade and Investment (Australia Business and Economy 2012). Australia has a reliable banking system and has fast and friendly regulatory procedures. It is known for having little restriction of product markets. This country is best fit as venue for global expansion as far as Walm art is concerned. Walmart entered various locations through several entry strategies. The company entered the Mexican market through a 50-50 joint venture with Cifra, Mexico’s strongest retail company. It counted on home grown Cifra to provide operational expertise, something that is needed by Walmart considering the cultural difference between the two countries, and the economic and political situation of Mexico. This bold move to partner with a local company proved to be highly successful for Walmart considering that this is their most successful foreign partnership to date. In Canada, Walmart acquired local company Woolco to be able to penetrate the Canadian market. This decision is brought about by the fact that the Canadian mark

Natural gas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Natural gas - Essay Example ) published a World Energy Outlook report in the year 2011 in which, the production of natural gas was estimated to increase by 50 per cent over the next two and a half decades. The report said, â€Å"Natural gas displaces coal and to a lesser extent oil, driving down emissions, but it also displaces some nuclear power, pushing up emissions. This puts emissions on a long-term trajectory consistent with stabilizing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at around 650 parts per million CO2 equivalent, suggesting a long-term temperature rise of over 3.5 [degrees Celsius]† (â€Å"Gas is not†). While a range of opinions exist for and against natural gas, it is overall a good source of energy. Natural gas is a good source of energy not only because it is in abundance in the US, but also because it can be transported affordably. Natural gas is a clean energy alternative because the process of its burning is cleaner compared to other fossil fuels. While burning, natural gas does not emit high amount of such harmful emissions as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, or carbon monoxide. Burning of natural gas also does not produce any particulates or ash. Although natural gas is not as clean as solar energy or wind energy, yet it can be considered as a stop-gap energy alternative because of its cost-effectiveness, abundance, and simplicity of use while the society transits to other sources of energy. The amount of carbon released into the atmosphere by natural gas is half as much as the amount that is released as a result of burning of coal. The US provides evidence of a success story as emissions declined to a 20-year low in the start of the year 2012. Although the decline in emiss ions can also be attributed to certain other factors like a shift to renewables and energy efficiency, the decline was at least, in part, because of a transition from the burning of coal to the use of shale gas. Similarly, â€Å"In countries like  Poland  and  China  where there is heavy

Personal Life and Success Essay Example for Free

Personal Life and Success Essay At what point do you stop when you have achieved successfulness? This is a million dollar question that has pondered through the minds of humans for ages. Success is perceived differently in every individual. But what opinion is correct? What is the perfect formula for a successful life? Does success consist of the amount of money you earn or power or is success based on happiness? To achieve ultimate success, is contentment vital? These are the questions that make the word â€Å"success† so subjective. What is the correct definition of success? In the dictionary it states that it is the accomplishment of an aim or purpose. Depending on your personal purpose in life, success is achieved at different levels. Everyone has a different purpose in life that they would like to achieve. Thus, who determines what success means is based on their goals in life. Money or popularity may be someone’s purpose so they would define that as success. On the contrary, does living your life everyday with no regrets or not worrying about money make you a successful person? When do we know when to stop when success is finally achieved? Do you stop working for success when you have all the money in the world or do you stop when you are comfortable with your lifestyle? Particular people believe success is when you are content with the life you live, not worrying about money or the everyday struggles of life. Others may conclude success is based on your income or how nice of an automobile you drive. It depends what you view as a satisfied lifestyle. Unfortunately our society revolves and relies on money. Though that sounds contradicting, money plays a great role in everyone’s lives. In order to support a family and own a house, currency is vital. We live in a society where money controls all. Without a decent job and a steady income, happiness seems so distant in the modern American life. We believe getting an education and earning a salary will bring happiness and joy. I am not saying money is the key to success but it’s a foundation in our modern society. My father is a great example of how success is viewed differently in each person. He was a man who never went to college but was determine to be successful. He worked hard since he was in high school and now works for Boat and Motors Superstore where he manages his own boat parts department. My father loves working with boats and loves his family. If you were to ask him, his life has been successful. My father measures success with how much joy is brought to his life on a regular basis. A secure job and a loving family fulfill his goal which ultimately makes him a successful person in his eyes. He does not focus on whether he has a higher income than others, my father’s man concern is security and happiness of himself and his family which is a quality that I cherish as well. The way I interpret success may be unique but I believe joyfulness will be present. My perspective of being successful resembles my father’s goals in life. I may not be wealthy or famous by any means but if I can maintain a stable job and a healthy family I would consider myself the most successful person in the world. Since the word success is more of an opinion based definition, the only way to measure success is if you are happy with the purpose you set in life that you would love to achieve. In other words, if you are happy with the person and life that is bestowed upon you today, then you have found success. What is success is a question from the past and will continue to be the question of the future. I believe there will never be one accepted answer. If that answer is ever found, please feel free to inform me. But when looking back on your life that you lived, ask yourself if you were happy. If you were, I honestly believe you will feel successful. I think success does not always mean happiness, but happiness always means success. I may be erroneous towards the classification of the word success, but an opinion is neither right nor wrong. I hope one day we can call ourselves successful and find out if happiness trails along with it.

A Democratic Society Essay -- essays research papers

A Democratic Society Throughout time the debate upon which is the best system of government has been an ongoing debate. Somewhere between the realms of democracy, socialism, fascism, communism, and monarchism lies the answer to the perfect system. Traditionally speaking, North America has always tried to remain democratic in ruling. The democratic system, unlike it's alternatives, encourages equality and liberty among the people which in modern society, makes it the most attractive system of government today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arguably, equality is the goal of many governments today. But what one must realize is that equality cannot be reached without giving someone else inequality. While democracy influences equality, communism and socialism frown upon the very idea that all people should be treated equal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The very idea that all men are created equally is very misleading. All men are not created equally. Human beings are unequal in essence because they are unequal in most physical and psychological characteristics along with health, intelligence, and emotional balance. For most of us, living amidst inequality is common. Equality is said to be having the same rights and freedoms as everyone else. In modern society this is very true to a certain extent. The only thing equal about people is that we are all born and eventually we all die. In North America, I believe that equality among people is nearly impossible. The education is the main source of the problem. Education itself created inequality between children at an early age. Since no two persons are created equally, they will not have the same opportunities, nor will they make use of opportunities offered to all people like the education system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the most important things to a person living in North America is liberty. Liberty  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Liberty can be defined as limited only be laws established on behalf of the community . To a certain extent, this enables people to be in control of their own lives. The individual has the right to choose how they conduct their lives. In the U.S. people rely on the Bill of Rights to protect themselves from government and other people. This bill of rights includes freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Among these freedoms is also the freedom of religion and freedom from unr... ...p;  A democratic society cannot function properly without liberalism. Liberalism is an ideology. It is a whole way of thinking. To be liberal means you are optimistic. Liberty and equality are the two things that separate our society from that of a communist or fascist government system. With things like the civil rights movement our society is slowing becoming more aware of the world beyond that our immediate environment. Ethnic groups and minorities are better represented our society than they were fifty years ago. You can no longer discriminate against someone because of there skin color which makes our world a more politically correct environment. Being democratic gives all people an equal chance to prove themselves in life. One thing I have learned about democracy is that is important to be open and not to think in the same mind set. Rules are meant to be broken. I have always thought that part of being democratic means making room for new ideals and theories that make society function better as a whole and in the end be more capable in handling problems in society. With all this in mind, freedom is in the hands of the individual and it is their choice what to do with it.

Meiji restoration Essay

Military: In 1872 the Japanese military started to use conscription. This is same as drafting in the U.S.A. All conscripts had to serve a three year period in military service, after which they were put to reserves for four years. This system was introduced by Yamagata Aritomo, and the next year this same man set up the Japanese Imperial army. He favored and used the army style of Germany, and the naval style of the British. Some years later the Samurai system was abolished totally†¦ Some Samurai were so upset, that they started a revolt. Economic: The Bakufu was ended on 1868. In 1871 the Daimyo’s were also dismissed, their land redistributed into smaller parts†¦ Unlike the samurai, the Daimyo received a large pension to compensate the loss of their land. In 1872 there was a land redistribution program. This was to become a more solid method than the previous system which relied totally on the price of rice†¦ A straight 3% tax was levied on the land. The government also started to sell industries which used to make Military hardware to the private buyers†¦These people later grew to become the Zaibatsu, which could be described as big industrial empires controlled by one family. Political: Feudalism in Japan was completely abolished during Meiji rule. Like most of Japan, also the parliament was altered heavily. Japanese government sent Ito Hirobumi to study the European parliament systems, and he especially favored the one of Britain. So the Japanese parliament, Diet, is based on the British parliament. It consists of Prime minister, upper and lower house. Hirobumi himself became the first prime minister and the upper house was made of the former nobility and the Daimyo’s. The lower house was chosen by the people. Also a privy council was set up to protect and review  the constitution, its sessions were lead by the Emperor Meiji himself†¦ Social:In 1872 it was ordered that all children, boys and girls both, were to attend primary school for six years. After this the girls would go home and learn more about life from their mothers, when some of the more successful boys on the other hand were allowed to go and study in a high school and then to university†¦Extremely high standards were expected, as students also had to learn a foreign language.

Letters from Earth Analysis Essay

In Mark Twain’s Letters from Earth after a brief introduction by Twain, the story shifts to the letters written by Satan to his friends in heaven. In the first letter, Satan—who has been banished to Earth for one thousand â€Å"Earth days†Ã¢â‚¬â€ goes on to say that the people, the other animals, the earth itself are all insane. Nature itself is insane. This first letter is a very blunt statement on human arrogance and hypocrisy. He says goes on to explain his declaration over the course of the next ten letters. The second letter explains the curiosity that is heaven as it is perceived on the earth. First and foremost, Satan points out that sexual intercourse is absent in this version of heaven. This is a peculiarity, due to the amount of emphasis placed on it during human life. He wonders why they would leave it out if they enjoy it so much on earth. In fact, people have created a heaven full of things they don’t value. On earth, most men do not sing and/or cannot stand singing, very few people play instruments, people don’t like to pray, people are bored in church, everyone looks down upon everyone else, all â€Å"sane† people detest noise. Keeping that in mind, Satan wonders why then that â€Å"heaven† is full of endless church services where everyone loves everyone else while they all sing and play a musical instrument. In letter three, Christianity is discussed. Satan claims that humans desire to be like (their) God, yet God is nobody to emulate. God punished Adam and Eve when he really had no reason to tempt them in the first place. He also continued to punish the next generations for a crime they did not commit (in regards to the forbidden fruit). People don’t treat their children that way, yet they claim to live in the image of God. He has set rules, yet he himself does not follow them.

Nancy Drew Books Author Carolyn Keene Biography

Nancy Drew Books Author Carolyn Keene Biography Teenage sleuth Nancy Drew and Mildred Wirt Benson had a great deal in common, including very long and active lives. Nancy Drew books, in one form or another, have been popular for more than 70 years. Mildred Wirt Benson, who wrote the text of 23 of the first 25 Nancy Drew books under the direction of Edward Stratemeyer, was still an active newspaper columnist  when she died in May of 2002 at the age of 96. Bensons Early Years Mildred A. Wirt Benson was a remarkable woman who knew from an early age that she wanted to be a writer. Mildred Augustine was born on July 10, 1905, in Ladora, Iowa. Her first story was published when she was only 14. While attending the University of Iowa, she wrote and sold short stories to help cover college costs. Mildred also worked on the student newspaper and as a reporter for the Clinton, Iowa Herald. In 1927, she became the first woman to receive a masters degree in journalism from the University of Iowa. In fact, it was while she was working for a masters degree that Benson submitted a manuscript for the Stratemeyer Syndicates Ruth Fielding series and was hired to write for the series. She was then offered the opportunity to work on a new series about teenage sleuth Nancy Drew. The Stratemeyer Syndicate The Stratemeyer Syndicate was established by author and entrepreneur Edward Stratemeyer for the purpose of developing childrens book series. Stratemeyer created the characters and developed outlines of the plots for a variety of childrens series and the Syndicate hired ghostwriters to turn them into books. The Hardy Boys, The Bobbsey Twins, Tom Swift, and Nancy Drew were among the series created through the Stratemeyer Syndicate. Benson received a flat fee of $125 from the Stratemeyer Syndicate for each book for which she was the writer. While Benson never hid the fact that she wrote the text for the Nancy Drew books, the Stratemeyer Syndicate made it a practice to require that its writers remain anonymous and listed Carolyn Keene as the author of the Nancy Drew series. Not until 1980, when she testified in a court case involving the Stratemeyer Syndicate and its publishers, did it begin to become commonly known that Benson wrote the text of the first Nancy Drew books, following the outlines provided by Edward Stratemeyer. Bensons Career Although Benson went on to write numerous other books for youth on her own, including the Penny Parker series, the bulk of her career was devoted to journalism. She was a reporter and columnist in Ohio, first for The Toledo Times and then, The Toledo Blade, for 58 years. While she retired as a reporter in January of 2002 due to her health, Benson continued to write a monthly column Millie Bensons Notebook. Benson was married and widowed twice and had one daughter, Ann. Like Nancy Drew, Benson was smart, independent, and adventurous. She traveled a good deal, particularly in Central and South America. In her sixties, she became a licensed commercial and private pilot. It seems fitting that Nancy Drew and Mildred Wirt Benson had so much in common. What Makes Nancy Drew Books So Popular? What is it that has made Nancy Drew such a popular character? When the books were first published, Nancy Drew represented a new kind of heroine: a bright, attractive, resourceful girl, capable of solving mysteries and taking care of herself. According to Mildred Wirt Benson, ...it seems to me that Nancy was popular, and remains so, primarily because she personifies the dream image which exists within most teenagers. The Nancy Drew books continue to be popular with  9-12-year-olds. Some of the boxed sets you might consider are: Nancy Drew Starter Set, which includes  The Secret of the Old Clock,  The Hidden Staircase,  The Bungalow Mystery,  The Mystery at Lilac Inn,  The Secret of Shadow Ranch, and  The Secret of Red Gate Farm  Nancy Drew Girl Detective Sleuth Set, which includes  Without a Trace,  A Race Against Time,  False Notes, and  High Risk. If you like audiobooks, try The Secret of the Old Clock  The Hidden Staircase Individual Nancy Drew books, such as  The Case of the Creative Crime  and  The Baby-Sitter Burglaries  are also available in hardbound and/or paperback editions.

Alternate vs. Alternative

Alternate vs. Alternative Alternate vs. Alternative Alternate vs. Alternative By Maeve Maddox One of my favorite DWT commenters took me to task for my use of alternate instead of alternative in this passage: in modern English writing, kn is an alternate spelling for the sound /n/, and igh is an alternate spelling of the long i sound I value his comments, so I have examined his criticism carefully, including the quotation from a previous DWT post that seems to support his belief that neither British nor American usage permits the use of alternate in the way I have used it: There was also a note about the difference between the use of â€Å"alternate† and â€Å"alternative† in American and British English – anyone writing for both markets should be very well aware of this distinction – it’s a very important linguistic distinction and is not to be ignored. Hugh Ashton The note Ashton refers to is from the New Oxford American Dictionary entry he consulted when his mother objected to his use of â€Å"three alternatives.† His original purpose was to find out if a person could speak of more than two alternatives. According to his mother and other traditionalists, one can speak of only two alternatives. According to the NOAD, however, speaking of more than two alternatives is â€Å"normal in modern standard English.† Ashton mentions â€Å"the difference between the use of ‘alternate’ and ‘alternative’ in American and British English,† and urges freelancers writing for both markets to be aware of the distinction. I do not think that he is saying that British usage and American usage do not differ. But even if he is saying that, I have to disagree. For one thing, American speakers use alternate as a noun meaning â€Å"a person designated to replace another in the event the other person is unable to fulfill his duties.† British usage does not use alternate as a noun. It is an easy step from using alternate as a noun meaning â€Å"a substitute,† to using alternate as an adjective meaning â€Å"substitute,† or â€Å"alternative,† as in alternate juror or alternate route. The following examples will illustrate that alternate used in this sense is common in standard American English: To avoid having to retry a case when a juror is excused before the end of trial (for example, because of illness), the court may seat a few extra or alternate jurors to hear the trial and be available to replace any juror who is excused. Regular and alternate jurors sit together during the trial. Some judges do not tell jurors which ones are the alternates until the jury is ready to deliberate. State law limits how many alternate jurors the court may seat. Oregonlaws.org/. The Alternate Route program is a non-traditional teacher preparation program State of New Jersey Department of Education Alternate plans allow landowners to apply for more site specific management flexibility than the standard Forest Practices Rules allow. State of Washington Natural Resources site. U.S. speakers save alternative for such things as alternative medicine and alternative rock. They also use the adjective alternate in the sense of every other. For example, parking might be allowed in a certain area on alternate days. Meetings might be held on alternate Mondays. British grammarians recognize the fact that American speakers do not use alternate in exactly the same way as British speakers do: In American English, alternate is widely used as an adjective in the sense of alternativeand as a noun to mean ‘a deputy or substitute’. Penguin Writer’s Manual, p. 56. For an American writer, to refer to â€Å"an alternate spelling† is no more erroneous than to write honor for honour. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Classes and Types of PhrasesProved vs. ProvenPreposition Review #1: Chance of vs. Chance for

Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 8

Case Study - Essay Example about Vioxx’s lack of significant side effects. FDA is also legally liable for not requesting and analysing Vioxx’s safety from Merck’s clinical trials. Merck is ethically and moral responsible for ensuring that health care practitioners are aware of Vioxx’s use. According to Lawrence, Weber and Post (263), Merck’s failure to divulge the drug’s potential to increase blood pressure was motivated by the need to gain a competitive advantage over the manufacturers of VIGOR. This was due to fact that VIGOR had less potential for aggravating high blood pressure in its users. Lawrence, Weber and Post (162) cite the need for FDA to appear as a functional agency despite the United States’ increasingly lacklustre performance in producing noticeable and economically drugs over the last decade in pharmacology. This makes the FDA a significant stakeholder in Merck’s success with Vioxx, which made it susceptible to errors of omission and collusion. FDA’s mandate to authorize and approve new drugs into the US market makes it a legally responsible for any damages that might have been caused by Vioxx. Merck is also legally liable as the originator and supplier of drug with questionable side effects. Not only does Merck and FDA took part in actions that serve to break the set out laws in the constitution, but they also go against societal morals and ethics. The fact that Vioxx’s sale and distribution was halted only in the US, and continued in other countries is ethically

Slavery in 19thcentury America vs. Arabia Research Paper

Slavery in 19thcentury America vs. Arabia - Research Paper Example As slaves begin to populate into countries such as modern day Arabia new lucrative of trading slaves became a common theme. The elite sought this opportunity to trade amongst themselves and business flourished. This become a focal point which facilitated the growth of imperialism. Conquest was crucial not only to supply labor force, but to also extend its boundaries. One of the biggest motivating points for slavery in the Arabian Peninsula was the economy itself that was most intriguing. The Arabian state was in the state of conquer where the influx of wealth enabled labor to thrive. With the ever-growing economy, it only made sense that the agriculture force needed to be amplified. At its peak, this part of the continent was flourishing from East to West as its border dominated the agriculture front. The Arabs needed to a labor force, for properties and landowners, who propagated the cause. This was especially true during the 19th century where the significance of breaking the Ottom an Empire was crucial. The enormous amount of wealth that was accumulated from the wars resulted in wealthy landowners. These landowners in essence also become politicians in the senate and pushed for the cause. Since citizenship was only granted to Arabs and elite status wealthy land owners, the slavers never got the level of citizenship. Hence, it was inevitable that slavery was already part of the lifestyle. Another interesting element about the Arabs slave trade was to execute gender and conquest. This was excruciating considering the fact that men were utilized impregnate conquered women. One of the major differences between slavery in in America was the fact that Americans were not trying to be imperialistic at this stage. Slavery was just another element that was embedded because of globalization that took place. The era of industrialization became a crucial factor that

HEALTH LAW AND ETHICS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

HEALTH LAW AND ETHICS - Essay Example ces on who gets a scarce treatment or immunization, who would get a transplant, and who has access to a provider in high demand raise various conflicts among the potential stakeholders. Hence, the law and ethics must come to application in solving stakeholders’ interests. They have different interests when there are resource allocation issues. For example, the patients seek to have the employer provide a wide variety of options for health coverage and fund their health insurance. The employers on the other hand seek maintain or lower the health cost contribution for the patients. Indeed, they are only ready to pay the patient’s most necessary health care. Furthermore, the health providers seek to provide preventive care and high quality health care that is mostly expensive and out of insurance cover. Health payers on the other hand seek to use few tests and fewest visits to obtain clear evidence and a diagnostic plan to achieve accurate treatment (Department of Communit y and Family Medicine, 2005). All these interests should fall in place during resources allocation. Indeed, while deciding on who would get a transplant, I will consider the serious of the disease, the costs involved, and the resources available. As such, the most serious cases with the least cost implication should get the transplant. At the same breath, the patients who are generally health should get scarce treatment or immunization. Nevertheless, all children should get the requisite immunization free of charge where possible. Additionally, no medication should apply to healthy persons despite their willingness to fund such treatment. Furthermore, it is ethical to accord children, patients with complicated and high incidence diseases access to a provider in high demand. Most importantly, in most cases, children patients should get the first priority while making health

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles Reptiles are some of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some 300 million years ago. It is believed that the first species of snakes contained limbs which became more and more reduced through great periods of time, this phenomenon can be seen as a clear indicator just how evolution took place within a group of organisms. Today vestigial structures occur in certain serpent families such as Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they once possessed. Spurs which occur in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear example of vestigial structures that formed through time. Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the most important assemblage, as far as snakes are concerned. Squamates is a very diverse group of ectothermic (organisms that rely on their external environment to obtain the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and other processes crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of being elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders: Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards. The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 genera that consist of more than 2900 species. Snakes have one of the widest distributional ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the whole planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone there occurs 166 species and subspecies of snakes, 101 of these species have enlarged fangs to deliver venom of which only 15 are regarded as very dangerous and potentially fatal to man. This means that of all our snake species only 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The remainder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less than that found in bees and wasps. There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the lack of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the sense that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the body of the animal thus supposedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper jaw bones arent united/interconnected at snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw bones to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large prey items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic a nd serves as the binding factor between the jaws. Snakes fulfill a crucial role/function in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating rodent numbers and are good indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is being done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is being conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous system to mention but a few. Such is the complexity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind. Evolution that took place within the Class Reptilia Reptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians called Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no longer than chickens. (Carr,1963) Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified skin that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to move more easily on land, and an improved circulatory system ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals. In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic decline during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which altered a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same four have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (cro codilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not common until the late Cretaceous times about 65 million years ago. In order to classify snakes or other organisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2) Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no direct link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of different snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more new species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae (front fixed fang snakes generally cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a brightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp. This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive. Distinguising features of the suborder Ophidia All snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms. Snakes poses a forked tongue which can be retracted into a sheath (Figure 2.1) All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for locomotion and maintaining body shape. The lower jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw. Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake. The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung. Unlike lizards the tail cannot be regenerated. All snakes shed their skin. All snakes hatch from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs hatch outside the females body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live young). Classification of snakes Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Ophidia (Serpentes) Infraorders: -Alethinophidia -Scolecophidia The classification of snakes are based on different morphological structures The general morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the presence or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microscopic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes. The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very prominent in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent altogether in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its normal function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont get lost and can still be carried over through copulation with females. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carr ied through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males usually have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipenes of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur. Biology Hearing and Vision Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprising to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bus h except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, instead they possess a fixed transparent shield which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing. Sense of smell For this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered; picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly the same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite a few prey items such as: rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first. Shedding Shedding of skin depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into hiding during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. Cold Blooded (Ectothermic) and Hibernation All members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature (ÂÂ ± 30Â °C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This method demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the e nvironment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protection against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices. Reproduction Sexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will determine how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes several males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate. All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once mating has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again. Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands secrete a substance which surrounds the egg. The length of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months. As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous). Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of circumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs laid vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night. In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting of a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to slit open the eggshell thus freeing itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth. Egg mortality is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. Movement (Locomotion Speed) The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts it is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis. There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakes: Sepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go. Caterpillar These are usually heavy bodied snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward. Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst pushing forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth braches of trees. Snakes that make use of this type of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus. Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving. Scales Most people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes. Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale counts: Head scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking note of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is present. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose. Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloaca Subcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conical tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. Internal Anatomy of Snakes A snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feeding habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The concept is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the learning center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth. Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed. Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated behind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which excrete nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and a nal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a short distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed. Venom There is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essence venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes. In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are totally different entities. Venom has to be injected (circulatory system) Poison has to be ingested (swallowed) The functions of venom are numerous: Prevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion. Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured. Digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion. Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may contract from prey. As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened. There are three types of snake venom: Neurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae). Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.) Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae). Fangs (Dentition) All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower